paper gnomon
a pointer to paper
bycatch
this series of small articles is the bycatch of my research. Often one finds interesting details that are worth to remember but are not relevant to the study. This is the place to collect these small clippings, snippets and scraps. The first entry was published on 2014-10-27 and the page will be added on irregularly.
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fibre tilt in machine made paper (2015-02-17)
Open or Closenot all things are created equal and paper forms no exception in this respect. In fact paper is highly anisotropic although it is not always perceived as such. Furthermore this anisotropy is not limited to paper’s two main properties of machine direction and felt or wire side.
When pulp is poured on the wire (sieve) at the beginning of its path through the Fourdrinier1 it is still highly diluted and fibres are easily caught by the bumps and dents in the sieve. In addition, the diluted state of the pulp allows much fibre movement, hence the first caught fibres are combed in the moving direction of the sieve. This first layer starts to act as a sieve itself and the following fibres will also settle in directions other than the machine direction. The fibres remain mobile so long as there is water above the paper web as it is being formed. This phase playing out on the wire is called filtration. Once the amount of water has sunk below the surface of the fibres, the web closes and the fibres are more or less locked in their final position. This phase can be called thickening as more and more water drains out of the web.
illustration 1: after: Bos, H et al. Het papierboek. Apeldoorn: VAPA, 1995 fig 5.1 p.200
The closing of the paper is visible because the colour of the pulp appears to be white during the filtration stage (assuming the paper being made is to be white) due to the water above the fibres reflecting light. In the thickening phase the colour turns greyish because the fibres reflect less incident light and more scattered light. You can liken this phenomenon to the difference between a varnished and a non-varnished painting.
The filtering property of the sheet-forming process brings with it a constant change in the down-flow of the water through the forming sheet. The water is pulled through the sieve helped by regularly placed foils and suction boxes. The water content of the web alters suddenly every time the wire passes over such a dewatering device. This causes continuous changes in the way the fibres are laid down and therefore results in paper with a highly layered structure. This layered structure can be observed in the finished product by peeling away the layers with pressure sensitive tape. In his book Watermerken en papierstructuur2 (watermarks and paper structure) the paper connoisseur and researcher Js. Hermans describes the separating of paper in its layers with the help of adhesive tape as his self-declared hobby. The layers he thus separates are about ten microns thick. He found a correlation between the thickness of the layers and the weight of the paper: a paper of 90 g/m² can be separated into nine layers and a paper of 40 g/m² into four layers. This means that any layer formed in paper weighs around 10 g/m² (tested on a normal and probably calendered paper).
Paper conservators sometimes use the adhesive tape separation method to peel away unwanted additions to an object. An example of this is the conservation of the Gouda cartoons, in which old backing layers on many of the cartoons were peeled off using adhesive tape3. As described in the AIC Paper Conservation Catalogue, the paper conservator has a number of techniques at their disposal for removing unwanted additions to paper4. Although the catalogue does not mention the adhesive peel technique, a number of more widely used dry techniques such as scraping, peeling and splitting are discussed. As Fourdrinier-made paper has a distinctive machine direction, most paper conservators use this property and so peel off layers of board in the machine direction. In this way a larger piece can be removed in one go than is possible working against the grain. And because this is a repetitious activity, one eventually gets the feel of which direction the peeling works best. This is how this author often experienced that although machine direction peeling works best, not all machine directions are created equal. In the aforementioned Gouda cartoons it was also noticed that the direction in which the tape was pulled had a large influence on the layer thickness that could be removed.
It can be helpful to have a good understanding of how fibres can be orientated in a sheet of paper, carton or board in order to use these techniques more effectively. To understand this orientation we have to look at paper and its fabrication more closely. We can describe paper using Cartesian coordinates as having three directions: x, y and z. In this system the x-coordinate describes the paper sheet from left to right and vice versa, the y-coordinate from top to bottom - bottom to top and the thickness as the z-direction: front to back - back to front.
illustration 2: flow of pulp out of the headbox onto the sieve: the wire
During formation paper fibres in the x-y plane can be oriented in the machine direction, which is dominant on the wire side, and in the cross direction, which occurs more towards the felt side. But fibres also entangle themselves in the z-plane of the paper: one end of a fibre can be near the wire side while the other end is nearer the felt side. This helps in improving the tear resistance of the paper since fibres extend from one layer to another, thus making the whole structure stronger, which is what a paper-maker wants. This property can be controlled on the paper machine to a certain extent by regulating the speed of the pulp flow from the headbox in relation to the speed of the wire. When the speed of the wire is greater than the speed of the head-box, the Fourdrinier operates in what is called ‚drag’ and when the opposite is the case the machine runs in ‚rush’. Drag and rush influence the tilt of fibres: a machine in drag has more fibres angled forward in the machine direction than a machine in rush. Macgregor5 explains this in a more scientific, engineering-like, manner. The difference in angle to the x-y-plane is minute but still gives an anisotropy in the z-direction. Although the exact measurement of tilt angle is not possible at this date6, this property of paper is exactly what we might already have experienced while peeling off paper or board. When the machine direction is found, peeling in one of the two possible directions turns out to be easier because a knife, scalpel or other instrument catches fibres more easily when they more or less protrude from the paper7 and, more importantly, the knife can slide under the fibres and does not skid over them. This also applies to the tape peeling method as shown in the following illustration:
illustration 3: schematic representation of fibre tilt. V: velocity, h: headbox, w: wire. red arrows indicate optimum fibre tear out and direction of knife (after MacGregor).
The tilt of fibres in the z-direction thus influences the efficiency of the peeling action and creates an optimum direction, either in the machine direction or opposing it. In multi-layered glued boards this can change per layer since it is possible that the layers are glued after a roll is rewound. Rewinding a roll of paper reverses the machine direction to the anti-machine direction. It is worthwhile trying to find this optimum direction as it can save a lot of time. The fibre tilt also explains why a paper can be more easily skinned in one direction than in another. Skinning is also influenced by the predominant difference in fibre orientation between wire and felt sides of the paper.
It should be clear from the above that the investigation of these properties before mechanically treating a sheet of machine-made paper can help improve the overall treatment, be it avoiding surface damage or working more efficiently.notes
1. the term Fourdrinier is used here to distinguish between the two types of paper machine: Fourdrinier and cylinder machine.
2. Hermans, Js. Watermerken en papierstructuur. Amsterdam: Intergrafia, 1972
3. Staal, Monique. 'The conservation of the cartoons of the Gouda windows (2005-2011)'. in: Ruyven-Zeman, Zsuzsanna et al ed. The cartoons of the Sint-Janskerk in Gouda. Delft: Eburon, 2011: p.258-271
4. http://cool.conservation-us.org/coolaic/sg/bpg/pcc/24_backing-removal.pdf
5. MacGregor, Michael A. 'Some impacts of paper making on paper structure'. Paper Technology, vol. 42, nº 3 (2001): p.30-44
6. [MacGregor, 2001-4] "No method presently exists to measure the degree of fiber tilt in paper. Instead, surface tape peels can indicate, with many paper grades, the presence of grain and, by the amount of fiber pulled out, even give a subjective idea of the tilt degree."
7. although this is technically not true: the paper is pressed and often calendered so the surface is smooth.
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progressive widening of papermachines (2014-10-27)
Open or CloseSince Robert’s invention in 1798 papermachines have become ever wider and faster. This is not only due to the engineering feat of building the machines but required a whole biotope of involved industries as well. Amongst others the traction of the diverse parts of the machine had to be improved and also the sieves needed new ways of weaving being developed. And what about the making of the necessary felts? Apart from that chemical additives in the pulp mixture that aided dewatering and felting of the fibres where a necessity for machines to run at a higher speed. Control over the properties of the pulp was evidently of the utmost importance. Meanwhile the first machine could produce paper of 64 centimeters wide. The widest machine nowadays is 1180 centimeters (in Hainan, China: download a PDF with the specifications here). The paper produced on this machine is 18,5 times wider than that from Robert’s founding machine. And then we have to remember that the speed difference is even greater than the width difference. The speed difference between the Two Waters machine and the one in Hainan is 1:283. The second Fourdrinier machine from 1805 installed in Two Waters had a speed of 6 meters per minute which means that the surface of paper produced was 9,12 m2 per minute. The worlds largest papermachine of our time runs at a maximum speed of 1700 meters per minute thus producing 20.060 m2 in that timeframe. That is a staggering 2200 times larger surface than that produced in 1805. On this machine the hydrated fibre in the pulp becomes entangled in the paper web that is continuously wound on a reel in 21 seconds: quite a dramatic change in environment.
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sorting rags: finesse in a dirty job (2014-12-15)
Open or Close
Rudin, Bo. Making paper: a look into the history of an ancient craft. Vällingby: Rudins, 1990 p73
Sorting rags has always been seen as a dirty, unhealthy and even dangerous job. Dirty because many rags were not only not clean, but also dusty, old and worn; unhealthy because many rag sorters (mostly women) became ill due to all kinds of bodily contaminations present on the rags and, in times of contagious diseases (such as cholera), even bacteria. The danger comes from the possibility of ‘spontaneous conflagration’ that befell many a rag warehouse and reduced them to ashes.
In order to make a good quality paper it was necessary to sort rags according to pre-defined types: the further the different kinds of rags were sorted the more uniform the resulting paper. By mixing different kinds of rags it was also possible to influence parameters such as colour, strength and rattle of a given paper.
The rag trade added value by pre-sorting rags in general types. Often the paper manufacturers would post-sort rags in order to refine the paper making process. Voorn1 remarks that the high quality of the paper from the Zaan depended upon rigoureus sorting at the mill, even fining rag sorters for mistakes made. Most sorting classifications were based on three criteria: the material, the colour and the quality. With these three building blocks further distinctions were made, the material being up until ~1780 mostly linen and hemp then after that also cotton and jute rags came into play, the colours being white, grey, blue, red, black or dark-coloured. The quality of rags is often classified as new via worn to soiled. Other aspects often taken in account are provenance and past use of the rags. Rags obviously came from various regions and these regions often also denoted a quality or lack thereof. Rags that were collected in more affluent regions were generally of a better quality than rags from poor regions that were worn to the limit of their useful life. The American Davis2 in his 1886 book gives several sources for rags, he mentions amongst others Alexandria-, Belgian-, British-, Constantinople-, Dutch-, Hamburg-, Japanese-, Königsberg-, Leghorn and Liban rags. That means that rags for the paper industry were imported from (and collected in) all corners of the world. As Davis mentioned, an important route for rags to be exported to England and the United States ran via Hamburg where a letter system3 was used to denote the different qualities: SPFFF meaning super fine white linen, FWWS fine white striped, SFX sail cloth and so on (see list below).SPFFF - sup. f. w. lein,
SPFF - feine f. w. lein,
SPF - 2 Sorte f. w. lein,
FF - halbweiße f. w. lein,
CSPFFF - sup. w. bw,
CSPFF - feine w. bw,
LFB - blaue leinene,
CFB - blaubaumwollene,
CFX - graue baumwollene,
LFX - graue leinene,
FR - rothe baumwollene,SFX - Segeltuch,
FWWS - weiß gestreifte
FWW - weiß flanell,
FWS - bunt gestrickte,
FW - weichwollene,
HW - harte wollene,
NCWC - neue Tuch,
CWC - geschittene Tuch,
CW - Tuch- und unges,
BB - Bombassin, (halbwolle),
BW - Beyderwand, (große Wolle).This indicates a further formalisation of the trade. In the middle of the 20th century rags were classified and sorted in an even more bewilderingly intricate manner. From the Degaast4 book it is clear that rag collection in Paris followed strict regulations and that rag collectors were highly organised. The rag trade even had their own weekly journal, ‘le Chiffonnier de Paris’ appropriately subtitled ‘Journal des Matières Premières’, which translates to Journal of raw materials.
Reuse and valorisation of waste is of all time but even so such a differentiation is remarkable. The table by Degaast that lists types of rags consists of 382 separate types spread over 17 categories, not all of which were meant for the paper industry: rags for fertilising soil and rags for polishing other materials are also mentioned. That means that, although the ragman stood in very low regard, the profession did require a sharp brain and a quick eye. It seems unlikely that such knowledge was acquired through a formal training. The usual preconception of coarseness that clings to the ragman is in my opinion entirely unjustified given the highly discerning and concentrated purposefullness that is apparent from the list below (which, by the way, could be recited like a poem). Luckily both French and English are included, which again shows that the rag trade operated internationally.
For reasons of readability the chifonnier’s list is given below the notes.
NOTES
1. Voorn, Henk. Papierfabricage in de eerste helft van de negentiende eeuw. 's-Gravenhage: Vereniging vrienden van de Koninklijke Biblotheek, 1975 p17
2. Davis, Charles Thomas. The manufacture of paper: being a description of the various processes for the fabrication, coloring, and finishing of every kind of paper. Philadelphia: Henry Carey Baird & Co, 1886 p 88-92
3. Mierzinski, Stanislaus. Handbuch der praktischen Papier-Fabrikation. Band 1. Wien: Hartleben's Verlag, 1886 p17
4. Degaast, Georges, Germaine Rigaud. 'Classification centrale des établissements Soulier'. in: Degaast, Georges, Germaine Rigaud. les Supports de la pensé, tome I Historique: la première partie de l’étude Papiers, cartons et celluloses modernes. Le monde et la science tome 53-59. Paris: Librairie Folatre, 1945: p.1882-1888rognures neuves
toile blanche neuve
toile écrue neuve pur fils nº 1
toile écrue neuve nº 2
toile écrue neuve rayée couleur
toile grise neuve extra de coupe
toile grise neuve nº 1
toile grise neuve nº 2
toile grise neuve rayée couleur
toile à voile fil neuve
toile grise fil et jute neuf
toile grise fil et coton neuf
toile à matelas fil et coton
toile jute et coton neuf
jute neuf souple
toile bleue neuve pur fil
toile bleue neuve foncée
toile marron neuve
toile verte neuve
toile noire neuve
fils gris mêlés
fils blancs et crèmes classés
fils gris classés
fils gris gros
calicot blanc neuf coupe extra
calicot blanc neuf nº 1
calicot blanc neuf nº 2
fleuriste blanc neuf
calicot blanc neuf molletonné
calicot blanc neuf menu
calicot blanc neuf triplure
coutils blancs neufs
corsets blancs neufs
rognures de bonneterie blanche
coton écru neuf de coupe extra
coton écru neuf nº 1
coton écru neuf nº 2
coton écru neuf nº 3
toile à voile coton écru neuf
molleton écru neuf
rideaux neuf écrus et blancs
tulle neuf écru et blanc
menus rideaux neufs
flanellette claire neuve
coton clair neuf imprimé
coton clair neuf oxfords
coton clair neuf doublures
coton clair neuf mêlé
coton demi-clair neuf
menus coton clair neuf
coton neuf rayé noir et blanc
flanellette foncée neuve
pilou neuf
coton foncé neuf nº 1
coton foncé neuf nº 2
rognures de bonneterie claire
corsets clairs neufs mastic
corsets clairs neufs mêlés
menus corsets clairs neufs
coton ardoise neuve
coton bleu uni neuf
coton bleu mixte uni neuf
coton bleu neuf mêlé rayé blanc
flanellette kaki neuve
coton kaki neuf
coton marron neuf
velours horizon neuf
velours marron neuf et foncé
satinette noire neuve extra
noire neuve moleskine
coton noir neuf de coupe
finette noire neuve
coton noir neuf glacé
flanellette rouge neuve
coton rouge uni pur
coton rouge neuf glacé
coton rouge et blanc neuf
déchets neufs mêlés menus
coutils foncés neufs
rognures de jute noir neuf
flanellettes bleutées claires
couleurs neuves mêlées
chiffons blancs vieux
toile blanche nº 1 fine extra
toile blanche nº 1 fine
toile blanche nº 1 libre forte
toile blanche nº 2 propre
toile blanche nº 1 campagne
toile blanche nº 2 campagne
toile blanche nº 3 demi-propre
toile blanche nº 4 demi~sale
toile blanche nº 5 très sale
toiles blanches lavées
toiles blanches raies rouges
coutures de toiles blanches
treillis militaires nº 1
treillis militaires nº 2
coton blanc nº 1 extra
coton blanc propre nº 1 et 2
coton blanc nº 3 extra
coton blanc nº 4 sans gras
coton blanc nº 5
coton blanc outshots paris
coton blanc nº 3 paris
coton blanc nº 4 paris sale
bas et tricots coton blanc nº 1 et 2
bas et tricots coton blanc nº 2
bas et tricots coton blanc nº 3
bas et tricots coton blanc nº 4
cache~corsets blancs propres
cache~corsets blancs sales
tricots blancs crochet
passementerie blanche
gants blancs
cols et manchettes propres
mousseline blanche nº 1 et 2
rideaux guipure nº 1 et 2 propres
rideaux guipure nº 2 et 3 paris
rideaux guipure sales
toile à voile coton blanche nº 1 extra
toile à voile coton blanche et claires
déchets menus blancs vieux
corsets blancs bruts
toile blanche nº 3 paris
cols et manchettes paris
cols et manchettes sales
mousseline blanche paris
cotons blancs nº 2 campagne
toiles blanches dures nº 2
toiles blanches dures nº 3
chiffons couleur vieux
coton clair pâle
coton clair nº 1 supérieur
coton clair campagne
coton clair vieux nº 2
toile à voile coton tanné
déchets de bâche coton
coton vichy pur
coton foncé vieux
coton rouge pur
coton rosé clair nº 1
coton rouge et rosé nº 2
bas rouges et rosés
doublures claires
bas et tricots extra clairs
bas et tricots couleurs mêlées sans rayures noires
velours mêlés
velours clairs et blancs
velours foncés et demi-clairs
vieilles couvertures
coton bleu clair
coton bleu foncé
cotons bleus mêlés
vieux plumiers
toile bleue propre nº 1
toile bleue nº 2
toile bleue mêlée
toile bleue bourrelier
coton noir pur
bas noirs coton pur
chaine coton vieille mêlée
passementerie couleur
vieux tapis
thibaude
couleurs rosées demi-claires
couleurs teintes vives
bas noirs délisiérés
bas noirs nº 2 sales
cotons noirs nº 2 sales
bas noirs et foncés à rayures
chiffons de bulle gris
bulle gris nº 1 extra
bulle gris dur nº 1
bulle gris nº 2
bulle gris rayé couleur
bulle blanc
toile grise demi-fil jute
toile à voile pur fil nº 1
toile à voile pur fil nº 2
toile à voile fil tannée
tabliers marchands de vins
paillasses
prélarts
bas coton très clairs
bas coton nuances bleues
bas coton gris fer
bas cachou clair
bas cachou foncé
cordages et ficelles
grosses cordes chanvre blanc
cordelettes chanvre blanc nº 1
cordelettes blanches nº 2
grosses cordes chanvre goudronnées
cordes chanvre goudronnées nº 2
petites cordes chanvre goudronnées nº 3
petites cordes chanvre tannées
gros filets chanvre blanc
filets fins chanvre blanc
ficelles blanches neuves nº 1
ficelles blanches nº 2
ficelles blanches nº 3
déchets (de classage) de cordes et ficelles
cordes et ficelles jute
ficelles blanches pailleuses
cordages manille
grosses cordes manille blanche
petites cordes manille blanche
effilures de corde manille blanche
grosses cordes manille coaltarées
grosses cordes manille 1/2 goudronnées
grosses cordes manille tannées
petites cordes manille 1/2 goudronnées
petites cordes manille tannées
effilures de cordes manille 1/2 goudronnées
câbles transmission en manille
filets en manille
cordes et ficelles sizal
cordes coco
soie artificielle
jerseys de soie couleur
jerseys de soie blanche
bas noirs de soie
bas couleur de soie
chiffons de jute
jute neuf gris souple
phormium propre nº 1
phormium propre campagne
phormium propre nº 3
phormium sombre et tendre nº 4
emballages coton tout-venant
emballages coton gros
emballages coton fin
emballages Australie
laizes Amérique
laizes Australie
culs-ronds Australie recousus
culs-ronds Australie ouverts
phormium fin de serpillière
chutes de sacs demi-fins
chutes de sacs Australie
sacs à ciment
déchets textiles et divers
déchets de fils coton mêlés
déchets de fils coton blanc
déchets de fil coton couleur
déchets de fil coton blanc terni
déchets de fil coton sales
grosses cordes de coton
ficelles coton blanches
ficelles coton couleur
cordes à broches
grattures d'apprêt
ouate blanche propre
ouate mêlée
ouate couleur
soie blanche vieille
soie couleur vieille
soie couleur neuve
tissus crins
taquets mêlés
taquets nº 1
taquets nº 2
rognures de taquets neufs
lames cirées
chapeaux de feutre souple
chiffons pour engrais
gros drap et savates feutres
cuir et savates cuir
colle à poil
chiffons pour essuyage et polissage
grands morceaux toile blanche propre
grands morceaux coton blanc nº 1
grands morceaux coton blanc nº 2
grands morceaux coton blanc nº 3
grands morceaux blancs nº 3 paris
grands morceaux coton extra clair propre
grands morceaux coton clair à laver
grands morceaux couleurs mêlées à laver
grands morceaux couleurs foncées à laver
grands morceaux chaîne coton fins à laver
garats grands morceaux
grands morceaux blancs nº 4
grands morceaux couleur nº 4
toile à vernir
essuyages toile blanche nº 1
essuyages mousseline blanche
essuyages blancs nº 1 extra
essuyages blancs propres
essuyages blancs nº 3 tachés
essuyages extra clairs lavés
essuyages couleurs mêlées nº 1 lavés
essuyages couleurs mêlées nº 2 lavés
essuyages foncés lavés
essuyages chaîne coton lavés
doublures écrues pour polissage
bâches coton pour polissage
essuyages coton blancs nº 2 ternes
essuyages toiles blanches nº 2 ternes
essuyages tricot blanc fin nº 1
essuyages tricot blanc fin nº 2
essuyages extra clairs moyens
essuyages blancs propres moyens
essuyages blancs ternes moyens
essuyages couleur nº 1 paris
essuyages couleur nº 2 paris
essuyages couleur nº 3 paris
chiffons blancs
toile blanche nº 2 forte
toile blanche nº 3 forte
toile blanche nº 3 ordinaire
lavettes
molleton blanc
mousseline nº 2 (sale)
corsets blancs délissés
déchets papeterie blancs sales
grands morceaux toile 2
coton nº 2 tendre
coton blanc et toile blanche nº 6
toile blanche délissée
blancs mêlés
blancs sales mêlés
rognures neuves
toile grise encollés neuve
toile grise neuve mousseline
tulle neuf nº 2
blancs neufs mêlés
coton neuf rouge et blanc imprimé
velours neufs clairs
velours neuf couleur
pilou neuf rayé rouge
tissus ameublement
bulles gris et cordages
toile grise tendre
toile dure foncée
toiles peintes
tuyaux en toiles
toile à voile blanche nº 3
toile à voile demi-fil coton
serviette raffinerie pur fil
serviette raffinerie fil et jute
serviette raffinerie jute
serviettes raffinerie coton
serviette raffinerie coton et fil
ficelles neuves mêlées
ficelles fines neuves
cordelettes neuves
filets noirs
rognures fils lavettes
bolducs
cordes longues à emballer
ficelles de paquets de coton
chiffons couleur
doublures ardoises
doublures mêlées
bas couleurs claires
tricots couleurs claires
bas noirs nº 2
bas noirs rayés blancs
bas noirs rayés couleur
velours blancs
velours couleurs
bleus mêlés toile et coton
coton couleur sale
déchets papeterie couleur
vieilles couvertures claires
vieilles couvertures foncées
essuyages couleurs sales
garats petits morceaux
garats en pièces
chiffons de jute
phormium neuf rigide
phormium neuf demi·fil
phormium neuf couleur
phormium mêlé
ficelles suint
emballages Buenos-Ayres
laizes fines
laizes diverses
déchets textiles et divers
déchets coton blanc nº 2
déchets de fil coton blanchis
déchets de fil coton bleu
encollés blancs
déchets de fil coton couleur Chauny
déchets de fil coton nord
déchets de fil coton Flers
déchets de fil coton Laval
déchets de fil couleur nº 2
déchets de fil couleurs sales
déchets de fil coton ternis
déchets de fil coton très sales
lames blanches
lames blanches avec maillons
lames cirées avec maillons
corde coton blanche coupée
ouate blanche nº 2
déchets de ouatenew cuttings
new white linens
new cream linens
nº 2 cream linens
coloured striped cream linens
best, new grey linens
nº 1 new grey linens
nº 2 new grey linens
coloured striped grey linens
new grey canvas
half jute grey linens
half cotton grey linens
half cotton mattress linens
half cotton jute cuttings
new soft jute cuttings
new blue linens
new dark blue linens
new brown linens
new green linens
new solid black linens
mixed grey linen threads
cream linen thread.
grey linen threads
coarse grey linen threads
best white shirt cuttings
nº 1 white shirt cutting
nº 2 white shirt cutting
new florist cuttings
new white molliton cuttings
new small shirt cuttings
new starched cuttings
new strong white cutting
new corset white cutting
new white knitt. cutting
best unbleached cuttings
nº 1 unbleached cutting
nº 2 unbleached cuttings
soiled unbleached cuttings
unbleached cotton canvas
unbleached molliton
white and unbleached curtain cuttings
white and unbleached lace cuttings
small white curtain cuttings
best new light flannellettes
best new light prints
new light oxfords
new light silecias
new light cuttings
half light cuttings
small light cuttings
white and black cuttings
new dark flannellettes
new colored flannellettes
first new dark cuttings
second new dark cuttings
new light knitts
best new mastic corset cuttings
light corset cuttings
small light corset cuttings
new slates
new solid blues
new mixed solid blues
new striped white blues
new khaki flannellettes
new khaki cuttings
new brown cuttings
new horizon fustians
new brown fustians and darks
best soft black satinets
new soft black cuttings
new solid black cuttings
new soft black cuttings
new glazed black cuttings
new solid red flannellettes
new solid red cuttings
new glazed red cuttings
new striped white red cuttings
new coloured shopperies small cuttings
new dark jeans
new black jute cuttings
new light bleu flannellettes
new mixed coloured cuttings
old white rags
nº 1 best fine white linens
nº 1 good fine white linens
nº 1 strong fibre white linens
nº 2 clean white linens
nº 1 country white linens
nº 2 country white linens
nº 3 white linens
nº 4 white linens
nº 5 white linens
washed white linens
red striped white linens
white linen seams
clean military linens
nº 2 military linens
extra nº 1 clean white couons
nº 1- 2 clean white cottons
nº 3 extra white cottons
nº 4 extra white cottons
nº 5 soiled white cottons
paris outshots white cottons
nº 3 paris white cottons
nº 4 paris soiled whi(e çouons
nº 1-2 white knitts
nº 2 white knitts
nº 3 white knitts
nº 4 white knitts
clean fine white knitts
soiled fine white knitts
coarse white knitted
white braids
white gloves
cuffs and collars clean
mixed white muslins
nº 1 and 2 white curtains clean
nº 2 and 3 paris white curtains soiled
soiled white curtains
nº 1 white cotton canvas white and canvas
light and white cotton canvas
white shopperies
white corsets
nº 3 paris white linens
paris cuffs and collars
soiled cuffs and collars
paris mixed white muslins
country nº 2 white cottons
nº 2 coarse white linens
nº 3 coarse white linens
old coloured rags
clean pale light prints
first good light prints
country mixed light prints
nº 2 light prints free from blacks
brown cotton canvas
coloured canvas
pure vichys
old dark cottons
old solid reds
nº 1 light reds free of blacks
nº 2 mixed reds
rose stockings
light linings
clean pale light knitts
coloured knitts and stockings without blacks
mixed coloured fustians
light fustians and whites
dark fustians and half light
old quilts
old light blue cotton
old dark blue cotton
mixed blue cotton
old featherticks
nº 1 clean blue linens
nº 2 soiled blue linens
mixed blue linens
horse collars blue linens
solid black cottons
solid black stockings nº 1 clean
old satinetts
old coloured fringes
old carpets
old soft drogguet
medium light rose cottons
medium light colored cottons
edged black cotton stockings
soiled nº 2 black stockings
soiled nº 2 black cottons
coloured and white striped stockings
canvas and grey linens
nº 1 extra grey linens
nº 1 strong grey linens
nº 2 grey linens
coloured striped grey linens
coarse white linens
half jute grey linens
strong nº 1 white linen canvas
nº 2 white linen canvas
brown linen canvas
dark linen aprons
dark linen mattress
tarpaulins
extra light cottons stockings
blue caftan stockings
grey cotton stockings
light tan stockings
dark brown stockings
ropes & twines
large white hemp ropes
small white hemp ropes
small nº 2 hemp ropes
large tarred hemp ropes
nº 2 small tarred hemp ropes
nº 3 tarred hemp waste
small tanned hemp strings
large white hemp nets
fine white hemp nets
nº 1 white strings
nº 2 white strings
nº 3 white strings
ropes nets and strings waste
jute ropes and twines
manillas
large white manilla ropes
small white manilla ropes
white manilla shakings
large very tarred manilla ropes
large half tarred manilla ropes
large tanned manilla ropes
small half tarred manilla ropes
small tanned manilla ropes
half tarred manilla shakings
manilla cables
manilla nets
white sizal strings and ropes
coco ropes
artificial silk
coloured silk jumpers
white silk jerseys
black silk stockings
colored silk stockings
jute rags
new-soft jute cuttings
nº 1 clean bright light bagging
clean country bagging
clean sound bagging
nº 4 dirty and dark bagging
mill run cotton tares
coarse cotton tares or gunny bagging
fine cotton tares
Australian and heavy bagging
gunny large pieces
Australian large pieces
Australian pouches first quality
Australian pouches with a slit
old fine light bagging
clean jute bags cuttings
clean Australian cuttings
cement bagging
waste & miscellaneous
mixed threads
white threads
coloured threads
half soiled white threads
soiled threads
large cotton ropes
small cotton ropes and strings
colored cotton strings
oily cotton bands
shearers
clean cotton wadding
mixed cotton wadding
colored cotton wadding
old white silk
old colored silk
new colored silk
old hair cloth
mixed buffalo pickers
nº 1 buffalo pickers
nº 2 buffalo pickers
buffalo punchings
waxed harness looms
hat soft felts
fertilizing materials
felt slippers and cloth
leather slippers
old furs for fertilizing purposes
wipers & polishing materials
clean white linen large pieces
nº 1 extra white cotton large pieces
nº 2 clean white cotton large pieces
nº 3 half clean white cotton large pieces
nº 3 paris white cotton large pieces
clean extra light cotton large pieces
extra light cotton large pieces
coloured cotton large pieces
dark cotton large pieces
linsey cotton large pieces
large misprints
nº 4 soiled white large pieces
nº 4 soiled colored large pieces
polishing white clean linens
washed white linen wipers
washed white muslins wipers
washed nº 1 extra white cotton wipers
washed clean white cotton wipers large sizes
washed nº 3 white cotton wipers
washed extra light wipers
washed nº 1 coloured wipers
washed nº 2 coloured wipers
washed dark wipers
washed linsey wipers
polishing large linings
polishing canvas
washed faded nº 2 cotton wipers
washed faded nº 2 linen wipers
washed nº 1 fine knitted cottons
washed nº 2 faded knitted cottons
washed small size pale light wipers
washed small size white cotton wipers
washed small size faded white cotton wipers
washed nº 1 all colours wipers
washed nº 2 ail colours wipers
washed nº 3 all colours wipers
white rags
nº 2 strong white linens
nº 3 strong white linens
ordinary nº 3 white linens
housecloth
old canton flannell
soiled white muslin
white corsets ready for use
soiled white shopperies
nº 2 linen large pieces
nº 2 soft cottons
nº 6 very tender soiled rags
white linens free from seams
mixed old whites
mixed soiled whites
new cuttings
new grey starchy linens
new spanish linens
new nº 2 white laces
new mixed cuttings
new red and white prints
new light fustians
new coloured fustians
new red and black flannellettes
furniture coverings
grey linens & ropes
tender grey linens
strong dark linens
painted canvas
linen canvas hose
nº 3 white linen canvas
half cotton linen canvas
sugar bags pure linen
sugar bags half cotton linen
sugar bags jute
sugar bags pure cotton
sugar bags half cotton linen
new mixed strings and twines
new hemp fine twines
new small ropes
dark nets
lavettes shakings
red twines
hemp baling ropes
cotton packing twines
colored rags
old slate linings
old mixed linings
light coloured stockings
light coloured knitts
second black stockings
white striped black stockings
coloured striped black stockings
white fustians
coloured fustians
mixed blue linen and coton
soiled coloured rags
old coloured shopperies
old light quilts
old dark quilts
mixed soiled coloured wipers
small misprints
large misprints
jute rags
starchy new jute cuttings
half cotton jute cuttings
new coloured jute cuttings
mixed bagging
woollens jute strings
light wool tares
hessians
mixed jute large pieces
waste & miscellaneous
nº 2 white cotton threads
bleached cotton threads
blue cotton threads
white warps
coloured threads Chauny
coloured threads north
coloured threads Flers
coloured threads Laval
nº 2 coloured threads
soiled coloured threads
half soiled white threads
dirty white threads
white harness looms
metal white harness looms
metal waxed harness looms
white cotton rope cut
second white cotton wadding
batting waste